Introduction
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a war on the Asian mainland fought between China and Japan. From 1937-1941, China received aid from Germany, the Soviet Union, and the United States. After the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, this war was integrated into World War II, and became the forgotten China-Burma-India Theater. If the period between 1937-1941 is counted, this theater made up over half of all the casualties of the war in the Pacific.
Even though the Chinese and Japanese were at odds since 1931, the all-out war did not start until 1937, and only ended when Japan surrendered in 1945. Before 1937, China fought only in small engagements, which were so-called ‘incidents’. Total war was avoided until after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937.
Occupation of Manchuria
The start of the conflict with China began in Manchuria, which Japan saw as a source of raw material, a market for manufactured goods, and a buffer zone against the Soviet Union.
On September 18, 1931, some Japanese officers blew up a train on the Japanese-owned South Manchuria Railway. Blaming Chinese rebels, the Japanese occupied the town of Mukden, and this series of events became known as the Mukden Incident. After five months, all of Manchuria was in Japanese control. The province was renamed Manchukuo, and a puppet leader was installed – Pu Yi, who was the last emperor of China.
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| The Kwangtung Army enters Shenyang after the Mukden Incident |
Following the Mukden Incident, the Chinese criticized the leader of Manchuria, Zhang Zeuliang, for his easy capitulation to the Japanese (despite the fact that the Kuomintang Central Government was indirectly responsible). Because of this, Chiang Kai-shek gave Zhang Zeuliang and the Northeast Army the assignment to suppress the Red Army of the Chinese Communist Party in Shaanxi. This saw many casualties in the Northeast Army, and they were refused any reinforcements. Sporadic fighting between China and Japan followed the occupation of Manchuria. On January 18, five Japanese Buddhist monks were beaten near the Sanyou Factory in Shanghai by Chinese civilians. Two were seriously injured, and one died. When policemen arrived to quiet the mob, one Chinese policeman was killed, and several more were hurt, which sparked a wave of anti-Japanese and anti-imperialist protests in the city and its outskirts, Chinese residents marching the streets calling for a boycott of Japanese-made merchandise. The situation deteriorated, and by January 27, the Japanese concentrated about 30 ships, 40 airplanes, and 7,000 troops around the shoreline of Shanghai.
The Japanese issued an ultimatum to the Shanghai Municipal Council, which demanded a public condemnation and compensation by the Chinese for damage to Japanese property during January 18, and also demanded that the government take steps to suppress any more anti-Japanese protests. On January 28, the Council agreed. All this time, the Chinese 19th Route Army had been amassing outside of Shanghai, which was seen as a danger equal to the Japanese by the Council. In the end, Shanghai gave a large bribe to the 19th Route Force, in the hopes that they would leave. But midnight on January 28th, Japanese carrier aircraft bombed Shanghai in the first major carrier action in the Far East. Three thousand Japanese troops then attacked various targets in Shanghai. The 19th Route Army, even though expected to leave, stayed and put up a stout resistance. In the end, the Japanese took the city of Shanghai, and these events became known as the January 28th Incident.
In 1933, the Japanese attacked the Great Wall region, and the Tanggu Truce left Japan in control of the Rehe province in addition to the demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and the Beipiping-Tianjin region. This was to be another buffer zone between Manchuria and the KMT in Nanjing (now Nanking).
Over the next two years, Japanese Army and Navy cadets in Tokyo assassinated the Premier, who opposed the fighting in China. Then, ultranationalists murdered the Finance Minister, and army officers killed his replacement and the previous Prime Minister. The major federal buildings were taken over, and civilian legislators were forced to flee for their lives. The Militarists claimed to be ridding the nation of corrupt influences serving the emperor - a tradition known as gekokujo. Eventually most of the Japanese population sided with the militarists. Inspired by the historic successes against China and Russia, the militarists became overcome with a ‘winners fever’, and by the mid-1930’s half of the national budget was slated for the armed forces. By the end of the decade, every high-ranking politician had gotten their position through a military career.
In 1935 China signed the He-Umezu Agreement, which forbade the KMT from holding party operations in Hebei. In the same year, the Chin-Doihara Agreement expelled the KMT from Chahar. By the end of 1935, the Chinese government had pretty much abandoned northern China. In its place, the Japanese formed the East Hebei Autonomous Council and the Hebei-Chahar Political Council. In Chahar, the Mongol Military Government was formed on May 12, 1936, with Japan supplying the necessary military and economic aid. However, Chinese volunteer forces continued their fight against the Japanese in Manchuria, Chahar, and Suiyuan.
During this time, Germany was in support of China, helping to modernize its military while receiving raw materials. Over half of Germany’s export of weaponry during its rearmament was to China. However, Hitler withdrew his support in 1938 so that he could ally himself with Japan.
On December 12, 1936, Zhang Zeuliang conspired with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek in Xi’an to force an end to the conflict between the Kuomintang (KMT; Chinese Nationalist Party) and the CCP. In exchange for his release, Chiang Kai-shek agreed to a temporary end of the Civil War, and to form a united front against Japan. The New Fourth Army and the 8th Route Army were formed, technically under the command of the National Revolutionary Army. Because of this agreement, the CCP fought as allies to the KMT in the Battle of Taiyuan, and the high point of the alliance was the Battle of Wuhan, after the invasion of China.
Invasion of China
On July 7, 1937, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident took place when both Japanese and Chinese troops were practicing night maneuvers near the Marco Polo Bridge, just outside of Peking (now Beijing). Several shots were fired, and the next morning a Japanese officer was missing. As the two sides were negotiating a truce and coming to the agreement that it was all an accident, more shots were fired (no one knows from which side). The Japanese retaliated by bombing three cities, and assaulted a crucial access point into Peking. Since the Chinese defenses of the former Northwest Army were poorly equipped, the Japanese easily took Beiping and Tianjin.
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| Japanese troops in gas protection in Shanghai, 1937 |
China was not ready for war. It lacked military industry, mechanized divisions, and only had a few pieces of armor. Until the mid-1930’s, the Chinese had hoped that the League of Nations would help. Also, the KMT and CCP never really united – both sides were really preparing for a final showdown after the Japanese were driven out. The Imperial General Headquarters in Tokyo actually was reluctant to escalate the conflict. However, the KMT had decided that the Japanese were at the ‘breaking point’. Chiang Kai-shek had woken up to the fact that he would need to prove to other nations that China had a chance if he was to get their support. Because of this, he decided to make a stand in the Battle of Shanghai. Kai-shek sent his best German-trained divisions to take the city from the Japanese. During this battle, the Imperial Japanese Army was forced to move 200,000 men along with many naval vessels and aircraft to keep control of the city after more than three months of fighting, with horrendous casualties. Even though it was a Chinese defeat, it proved that they would not give in easily.
In September of 1937, the Soviet Union and China signed the Sino-Soviet Non-Agression Pact, and the Soviets began sending military aid to China. Operation Zet, a Soviet Volunteer Air Force, was approved. Bombers, fighters, military supplies, and military advisors arrived, including General Vasily Chuikov, the man who was destined to become the victor of the Battle of Stalingrad.
Before the Western Allies began aiding China, the Soviets gave the most support to China, supplying about $250 million worth of supplies and the like. But in 1941 the Soviets withdrew their aid due to the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact, and the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. This enabled the Soviets to avoid fighting Germany and Japan simultaneously. In all, some 3665 Soviets fought with China, suffering 227 fatalities. At one time, the Soviets did breach their pact with China by invading the province of Xinjiang during the Islamic Rebellion in Xinjiang of 1937, and also fought against the Nationalists during the Ili Rebellion during the war on Japan.
After the costly victory at Shanghai, the IJA captured the KMT capital of Nanjing, and took Southern Shanxi by the end of 1937. These campaigns involved over 350,000 Japanese soldiers, and many more Chinese troops. On December 13, 1937, 50,000 Japanese soldiers who were given the task of restraining the inhabitants of Nanking posted signs that read ‘Trust our Japanese Army. They will protect and feed you,’ all throughout the city. When the men in the city showed themselves, they were divided into groups of 150 men, and led out to the city. The civilians mistakenly believed that there they would be given provisions. Once outside of Nanking, they were methodically slaughtered. Many more atrocities were committed by the Japanese – murder, rape, and pillaging occurred in horrific proportions. It is estimated that in Nanking, 260,000-350,000 people were slaughtered mercilessly, but the exact number remains unknown. Some Japanese still deny that the massacre took place. In any case, Nanking was the last of Japans big successes in China.
Why would God allow these things to happen? Well, we must remember that though we sided with the Chinese in this war, they were still a nation that was rejecting God. Most of China worshipped false Gods, and China is also the place where the yin-yang beliefs developed. Japan too rejected God, and had false Gods. Both countries were accountable – many missionaries were still in China when the Japanese struck. When a country repeatedly rejects the one true God, he does not sit back and do nothing. Countries without God will never have true peace, but will continue fighting and killing each other. Neither of these nations had the one true God with them, and that is the reason for such horrendous casualties on both sides.
In 1938, Tokyo was still hoping that the conflict would be limited to the areas around Shanghai, Nanjing, and northern China. They were still hoping to save their strength in preparation for a showdown with the Soviet Union. However, by this time, the Japanese government had really lost control of the war. Spurred on by their many victories, several Japanese field generals decided to escalate the conflict. This led to their defeat at Taierzhuang. After this defeat, the IJA had to change their strategy, sending their forces to attack the city of Wuhan. Wuhan was now the political, economic, and military center of China. The Japanese hoped to destroy the strength of the National Revolutionary Army, and force the Chinese to negotiate. However, after the Japanese captured Wuhan on October 27, 1938, the KMT set up a provincial capital in Chongqing (now Chungking), and Kai-shek refused to negotiate with the Japanese unless they would withdraw to their pre-1937 borders.
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| Chinese Soldiers during the Battle of Taiezerhuang |
It was then, in late 1938, that the distrust between the KMT and CCP began to grow. The Communists began to expand their military strength by taking control of Chinese guerrilla forces that were operating behind the Japanese lines. Those that refused to swap allegiances would be accused of collaborations and be annihilated. By 1940, open conflicts between the two parties became more frequent, which terminated in the New Fourth Army Incident in January of 1941.
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| National Revolutionary Soldiers on their way to the front, 1939 |
By this time, the Chinese were simply trying to prolong the war with Japan. The National Revolutionary Army therefore used the concept of ‘magnetic warfare’ – attracting advancing Japanese troops to places perfect for ambushes, flanking attacks, and encirclements. This type of warfare was successful in two defensive campaigns at Changsha in 1939 and 1941.In addition to this, local Chinese resistance forces organized by both the CCP and KMT continued pestering the Japanese. In 1940, the Chinese Red Army launched a guerilla offensive in northern China, destroying railways and blowing up a major coal mine. The harassment eventually led the Japanese to use senko-saisaku: the ‘Three Alls Policy’ – kill all, loot all, burn all.
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| Japanese troops attacking with poison gas in China |
With all of the Japanese casualties and costs, Tokyo attempted retaliation by launching the first massive air raids on civilians, bombing Chongqing and almost every major city in China that had not fallen to the Japanese. These raids left millions dead, injured, and homeless. In 1940, following the Japanese defeats at Changsha and Guangxi in 1939, the Chinese launched their first major counter-offensive. But because of their lack of military industry and a lack of experience in modern warfare, the Chinese were pushed back. After this offensive, Chiang Kai-shek did not risk anymore all-out offensives.
Around this time, the public opinion of the Western Allies turned more anti-Japanese, and the United States, United Kingdom, and France began to assist the Chinese. Australia denied permission for a company owned by the Japanese government from taking over an iron mine in Australia, and also banned all iron ore exports to Japan. Japan retaliated by invading French-Indochina in 1940, and blockaded China from import through the Haiphong-Yunnan Fou railway.
It was in 1940 that the Japanese began experiencing difficulties in the administration of captured territories. They attempted to make puppet governments, such as the Nanjing Nationalist Government which was headed by the former KMT premier Wang Jingwei. But since so many atrocities had been committed against Chinese civilians, they were very unpopular with the populace. Their only real success was the creation of the Collaborationist Chinese Army, which as used to control the public in occupied areas.
By 1941, most of the eastern coast of China and Vietnam were Japanese controlled, but guerilla warfare took its toll in those areas, causing the Japanese many casualties. By now, the Chinese alliance had broken off, and Mao Tze-tung outlined a plan to take power from Kai-shek. He began his final push to consolidate control of the CCP under him only, and his teachings became the main creed of CCP doctrine.
In mid-1941, the United States government financed the American Volunteer Group (AVG), better known as the Flying Tigers, to replace the withdrawal of the Soviet volunteers and aircraft. Led by General Claire Lee Chennault, this group had great success in the early parts of the war, giving a good boost in morale during a dark time for the allies. They scored 300 kills verses the loss of 12 of their P-40 Warhawks. We will cover the Flying Tigers in a later article.
To attempt to pressure the Japanese from continuing their fight, the United States, United Kingdom, and the Dutch East Indies blocked all oil and steel exports to Japan. This made it virtually impossible for Japan to continue its campaign in China. This action helped goad the Japanese on to attack the Allies on December 7, 1941. After the Japanese attacked the Western Allies, the Chinese formally declared war on Japan, Germany, and Italy, and the Second Sino-Japanese War was integrated into the greater conflict of World War II, becoming the forgotten China-Burma-India Theater.
Sources:
The First Heroes – Craig Nelson
War Stories II: Heroism in the Pacific – Oliver North with Joe Musser
www.wikipedia.com
