Annexations and Occupations: Hitlers Diplomatic Conquests, 1936-1939

The Rhineland

Between 1933 and 1935, Hitler was secretly rebuilding the German army. On March 16, 1935, he publically announced that he was going to form 36 German divisions. Secretly Hitler ordered Hermann Goering to build an Air Force – a ‘Black Luftwaffe’ – and also made a program for building up the German navy. The western Allies did nothing to counter this threat, though it was in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles.

On March 7, 1936, Hitler sent an army into the Rhineland, on the western border of Germany. This violated not only the Treaty of Versailles, but also the Locarno Treaty which Germany had signed on their free will. When Hitler ordered his troops into the Rhineland, he was taking a calculated risk. Legally, the French army could have forced the Germans out. The French army was larger than the German army. Hitler later said, “The forty-eight hours after the march into the Rhineland were the most nerve-racking in my life. If the French had marched into the Rhineland, we would have had to withdraw with our tails between our legs. The military resources at our disposal were wholly inadequate.” “A retreat on our part would have spelt collapse. What saved us was my amazing aplomb.” Europe did not react. They could have crushed Hitler without much cost to themselves. They did not lift a finger. France and Britain wanted to avoid another war. They refused to resist Hitler when he was weak. Within a year, Hitler was in control of the largest army and air force in the world.

Austria

On February 12, 1938, Hitler hosted Dr. Kurt von Schuschnigg, the Chancellor of Austria, in his villa on the Alps. Schuschnigg was there thinking that they were to discuss some political differences. Starting to comment on the fine view of the Alps, Hitler cut him off. “We did not gather here to speak of the fine view or weather.” “You have done everything to avoid a friendly policy. The whole history of Austria is just one uninterrupted act of high treason. I can tell you right now, Herr Schuschnigg, that I am absolutely determined to make an end of all this.” Schuschnigg was taken aback, and vainly tried to defend his country. Hitler went on: “I’m telling you once that things cannot go on this way! I have a historic mission, and this mission I will fulfill because Providence has destined me to do so! Who is not with me will be crushed.” Schuschnigg realized that Austria was the one to be crushed.

Hitler finally gave his ultimatum. Schuschnigg was to give important government positions to the Austrian Nazis, which had been outlawed after an attempted coup. Since that party was under Hitler’s control, it would be the same as surrendering to Him. If they did not, Hitler would send his troops in. Schuschnigg capitulated, and gave up his post to Artur von Syss-Inquart.

Hitler said that the Austrian people could have a vote, to see if they wished to be ‘free and independent.’ The voting was to take place on March 13. Hitler knew that they would vote for freedom, and so on March 11 he sent his troops into Austria, and the voting never took place. Instead, the public was informed that Austria and Germany had united, without giving the people a choice.

Czechoslovakia

 Hitler now turned to the Czechoslovakian–occupied Sudetenland. He demanded that the Czech’s ‘return’ it to Germany (even though it had formerly belonged to Austria, not Germany). Neville Chamberlain, the Prime Minister of Great Britain, actually was willing to sacrifice the Sudetenland for peace in Europe. He didn’t realize that Hitler’s victories only whetted his appetite for more. In mid-September of 1938, Chamberlain had convinced the Czechoslovakian government to give up the Sudetenland peacefully. He informed Hitler of this on September 22. Hitler told him that he was increasing his demands on Czechoslovakia, and that his plan was not of any use.

At the Munich Conference, with Germany, Italy, France, and Great Britain on the night of September 29-30, Hitler finally got his way. All of those countries agreed that Hitler could have the Sudetenland. Even after this victory, Hitler wanted more. He later said, “That fellow Chamberlain has spoiled my entry into Prague.”

On March 15, 1939, Hitler received the Emil Hacha, President of Czechoslovakia, in Berlin. He granted him an audience at 1:15 AM. Hitler informed Hacha that Czechoslovakia was going to be ‘introduced’ into the Third Reich. Hacha asked Hitler to be generous, and allow the Czechs ‘the right to live a national life.’ However, Hitler would not have it that way. “I have warned you that unless Czechoslovakia mended its ways I would destroy this nation completely! It has not mended its ways! So I have given the order for the invasion of German troops for the incorporation of Czechoslovakia into the German Reich!” Hitler said that that very morning, his troops would enter “Czechia”. Hacha had two choices. Either resist, and be annihilated, or surrender immediately. Hitler told Hacha that for every Czech battalion ready to resist, he had a German division ready to suppress it. “I am doing all this not from hatred, but in order to protect Germany. If last autumn Czechoslovakia had not given in, the Czech people would have been exterminated! No one could have prevented me from doing it! The world would not have cared a jot. I sympathize with the Czech people. That is why I have asked you to come here. This is the last good turn I can render the Czech people. Perhaps your visit may prevent the worst. The hours are passing. At 6:00 AM the troops will march in.”

Hitler said he would give the Czech president a bit of time to think it over. He dismissed him at 2:15 AM. In the next room, Hermann Goering and Joachim von Ribbentrop continued to hound Hacha to surrender, pushing a pen into his hand. Down the hall, Goering was heard calling for a doctor. “Hacha has fainted!” Hitler’s personal physician revived him with injections. Under all the pressure, Hacha gave in. Hitler rushed down to a secretary’s office, and said, “Children! This is the greatest day in my life! I shall go down in history as the greatest German!” Hitler went down in history all right. With his diplomatic bullying over, Hitler went to war. This was the beginning of the end of Nazi Germany.

Sources:

Best Little Stories of World War II – C. Brian Kelly

The Rise & Fall of Adolf Hitler – William L Shirer

library.thinkquest.org

The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia

Gloster Gladiator

Gladiator in pre-war RAF markings

Introduction

The Gloster Gladiator was the last British biplane fighter. It was used by the Royal Air Force and the Fleet Air Arm, and exported to many countries. Being a biplane, it was obsolete even before it was introduced. The Gladiator saw action in almost all the theaters, including the China-Burma-India theater, Europe at the start of World War II, the Balkans, Malta, North Africa, and East Africa.

Development

The RAF issued Specification F.7/30 in 1930, calling for a fighter with a top speed of at least 250mph, and armament of four machine guns. The recommended engine was the Rolls-Royce Goshawk steam-cooled engine, which most designers used. This engine proved to be unreliable, and most of the competitor’s airplanes failed as a result. This did buy some time for the specification to be met by Gloster.

When the specification was issued, Gloster was working on the Gauntlet biplane. After most others failed, it was decided to redesign the Gauntlet to meet the specification. The wings were changed to a single-bay (as opposed to twin-bay), and the undercarriage was replaced with a cantilever one with internally-sprung wheels. The new aircraft, designated SS.37, first flew on September 12, 1934, with a 530hp Bristol Mercury VIS 9-cylinder radial engine. With a newer version of the Mercury, it reached speeds of 242mph while carrying four guns. On April 3, 1935, the RAF evaluated the aircraft while Gloster continued improving the machine – giving it an 830hp Mercury IX and a fully enclosed cockpit. Three months later, the first order of twenty-three aircraft came, along with a name – Gladiator.

The first version, the Mk I, became operational in January 1937. It was followed by the Mk II which sported a more powerful Mercury engine and a fixed-pitch, three-blade metal propeller, rather than the twin-bladed wooden one of the Mk I. The Fleet Air Arm also decided to use the Gladiator as a replacement of the Hawker Nimrod, and ninety-eight Gladiator Mk II’s were modified into Sea Gladiators, having arrester hooks and dinghy stowage.

The Gladiator was the last British biplane fighter, and the first British fighter with a fully enclosed cockpit. Its top speed was around 257mph. It was outclassed by newer monoplanes before it was introduced. A total of 747 were built (486 for the RAF, 98 for the FAA, and 216 for export). They were sold to Belgium, China, Egypt, Finland, France, Greece, Iraq, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, and Sweden.

Bristol Mercury VII engine

Operational History

By September 1939, the Gladiator was mostly relegated to duties in the background, replaced in the front-line services by the Hurricane and Spitfire. However, two squadrons were used in the Norwegian and French campaigns. The aircraft also did well in Finland during the Winter War on the Soviets. In most other theaters, it was outclassed by German fighters. However Sea Gladiators operating from carriers were more successful. The slower speeds of the biplane made it better for carrier operations, and it was also less likely to be opposed by more modern fighters. The Gladiator also did well in the Mediterranean against Italy.

China

In October of 1937, China ordered thirty-six Gladiator Mk I’s. By February of 1938, Chinese pilots were starting to familiarize themselves in the aircraft. On February 24, an A5M Claude was shot down near Nanking, the first Gladiator kill. The pilot was Captain John Wong Sun-Shui, a Chinese-Amercian. He is believed to have shot down two aircraft, as two wrecks were found. This was done for a loss of two Gladiators. There were several more victories over Japanese aircraft between 1938-40, and it was considered an excellent fighter. However, the A5M was a bit better, and due to a lack of spares they were eventually relegated to training. By the time the A6M Zero entered the theater, the Gladiator was obsolete. John Wong, the first Gladiator ace and first American ace of the Second World War was shot down on March 14, 1941, and died two days later. He was among the fifteen Chinese-Americans who formed the original group of American volunteers in China.

Finland

During the Winter War in Finland, thirty Gladiator Mk II’s were in service with the Finnish Air Force. Twenty had been bought, and ten were donated by the British. All had been delivered between January and February 1940. They served until 1945, though in the Continuation War they were outclassed by Soviet fighters, and were mainly used for reconnaissance. They did do well, getting 45 kills by 22 pilots in the Winter War, and one in the Continuation War. Twelve were lost in combat during the Winter War, compared to three in the Continuation War. There were two aces.

Gladiator in Finnish Service

Norway

Both Norway and Britain used Gladiators against Germany in Norway. Pilots of the Norwegian Jagevingen (fighter flight) at Fornebu Airport flew seven aircraft on April 9, and shot down two Bf-110’s, two He-111’s, and one Ju-52 filled with Fallschirmjager (paratroopers). One Gladiator was shot down by ace Helmut Lent, and two were destroyed on the ground. The other four landed on frozen lakes around Oslo. They were later wrecked by civilians looking for a souvenir.

British No. 263 Squadron came to Norway aboard HMS Glorious on April 24, and operated from the frozen Lake Lesjaskogsvatnet in central-southern Norway. Within a week, all of the aircraft were unserviceable, and the squadron was evacuated. They were re-eqipped and returned to northern Norway on May 21, flying from Bardufoss airfield near Narvik. No. 46 Squadron also was operational there with Hurricanes. The Gladiators defended fleet anchorage over Narvik and the island of Hinnøya. They were only in action for a short time, and were ordered to prepare for evacuation on June 2. For twelve days, they had flown 249 sorties and shot down 26 airplanes. The remaining ten aircraft landed on HMS Glorious on June 7, and sailed for home. However, the ship was intercepted and sunk by the German battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst.

Norwegian Gladiator shot down by Helmut Lent

Battle of Britain

Gladiators operated with No. 247 Squadron at Roborough, Devon. They did not see much action. No. 239 Squadron and No. 804 Naval Air Squadron were also operational with Gladiators and Sea Gladiators.

Malta

The best-known campaign involving Gladiators was the siege of Malta in 1940. No. 802 Naval Air Squadron had been dropped off by HMS Glorious in early 1940. Later, they were shipped up to Norway, and three airplanes were sent to Egypt. By April, Malta was in desperate need of fighters and made up a flight of Gladiators at RAF Hal Far, composed of RAF and FAA personnel. Several crated Sea Gladiators were built and tested, and became a sought after commodity. It was this flight that formed the myth of three Gladiators named Faith, Hope, and Charity, though they weren't given the names until after they were retired.

The Italians could have destroyed Malta, but the Gladiators did win several engagements. Usually they would dive onto the SM.79 bombers before the escorting CR.42 biplanes or MC.200 monoplanes could react. On June 11, 1940, the Gladiators damaged a CR.42, and on June 23 they were victorious over several SM.79’s and three CR.42’s. One Gladiator shot down an MC.200, which outclassed the Gladiator. Another pilot shot down two SM.79’s and two CR.42’s, and claimed an MC.200 on June 11 and another SM.79 damaged. Even though the Regia Aeronautica had the numerical advantage, the Gladiators held them off until Hurricanes could be brought to the island.

Sea Gladiator on Malta - Faith

North Africa

The main opponent of the Gladiator in North Africa was the Fiat CR.42 Falco. It was a superior aircraft, but the pilots were not always superior. On June 14, Tenente Franco Lucchini of 90a Squadrigglia, 10° Gruppo, 4° Stormo, flying a CR.42 from Tobruk, shot down a Gladiator over Amseat – the first claim against the RAF in the desert. On the afternoon of July 24, CR.42’s and Gladiators fought over Bardia. Eleven CR.42’s from 10° Gruppo and six from 13° Gruppo attacked nine Blenheim’s which were bombing Bardia. They were, in turn, attacked by fifteen Gladiators. No. 33 Squadron claimed four CR.42’s.

On August 4, 1940, CR.42’s from 160a Squadrigglia intercepted four Gladiators commanded by Marmaduke Pattle, which were attacking Breda Ba.65’s. The Fiats had surprised the Gladiators, and destroyed three. on August 8, fourteen Gladiators of No. 80 Squadron jumped a group of CR.42’s from 9° and 10° Gruppi of 4° Stormo (an elite group) over Gabr Saleh. The British shot down 13-16 confirmed, and 1-7 probable to the loss of two. One of the strongpoint’s of the Gladiator over the CR.42 was radio equipment, which helped coordinate attacks. From 1941 onwards, monoplanes started replacing biplanes on both sides in front line operations.

Eastern Africa

Gladiators faced CR.32’s and CR.42’s in Eastern Africa. On November 6, 1940, CR.42’s of 412a Squadrigglia shot down five Gladiators without loss. However, by June of 1941 the Regia Aeronautica had only two flyable aircraft – one CR.32 and one CR.42 – and the British Gladiators and Hurricanes had complete superiority. The last combat in the Eastern Africa Theater was on October 24, 1941, when a CR.42 flown by Tenente Malavoti flew to strafe airfields at Dabat and Adi Arcai. Italian sources have it that he was intercepted by three Gladiators, shooting down two and being shot down by the third. English sources say that Lieutenant Lancelot Charles Henry “Paddy” Hope of the South African Air Force scrambled from Dabat, intercepted and dove on the CR.42. The Italian took evasive action, but Hope followed, closed to within 20 yards, and fired, and the CR.42 spun in near Ambazzo. Wreckage was found the following day. Hope dropped a message on the Italians at Ambazzo – “Tribute to pilot of the Fiat. He was a brave man. South African Air Force.” English sources do not have any record of two downed Gladiators.

Greece

Ever since April 1939, when Italy occupied Albania, Greece and Italy had tensions building. Italy gave Greece an ultimatum on October 27, 1940, which was refused, and Italy then invaded.

Britain sent No. 80 Squadron to Trikkala, and on November 19 some Gladiators intercepted five CR.42’s and shot down four. On November 27, seven Gladiators attacked three Falco’s, and shot down the leader. On November 28 four Gladiators were shot down along with three Falco’s. On December 3, elements of No. 112 Squadron arrived in Greece. The next day, twenty Gladiators fought ten CR.42’s with the loss of three Gladiators and two CR.42’s. On December 21, twenty Gladiators intercepted fifteen CR.42’s and shot down two for the loss of two. Over the next few days, several SM.79’s and SM.81’s were shot down by Gladiators.

No. 112 Squadron moved to Eleusis in January 1941, and by the end of February they received No. 80 Squadrons Gladiators. On April 5, when Germany invaded Greece, they took domination of the skies. Gladiators flew cover missions before evacuating to Crete. No. 112 Squadron claimed a few twin-engine aircraft before evacuating to Egypt during the Battle of Crete.

Anglo-Iraqi War

The Royal Iraqi Air Force was trained and equipped by the British, and in 1941 No. 4 Squadron was equipped with seven operational Gladiators at Rashid. After an RAF attack on blockading Iraqi forces, Iraqi Gladiators strafed RAF Habbaniya on May 2. The sole Gladiator vs. Gladiator kill was on May 5, when Pilot Officer Watson shot down an Iraqi Gladiator over Baqubah. Much of the Iraqi air force was destroyed, but they kept flying Gladiators until the end of the war. The Anglo-Iraqi war was the only war in which Gladiators fought for both sides of the conflict.

Syria

Following the war in Iraq, the British decided to invade Syria, controlled by the Vichy-French, before the Germans took complete control. The French had supported the Iraqi rebellion, and had allowed Luftwaffe aircraft to use their airfields. The month-long campaign saw heavy fighting until the Vichy French surrendered. On June 15, six Gladiators had been jumped by six Dewoitine D.520 monoplanes – the best that the French possessed. Both sides lost one aircraft shot down and one damaged.

Other Forces

Belgium had fifteen Gladiators in their Air Force in May of 1940, and all were lost to the Luftwaffe that month. Two Irish Gladiators were scrambled to intercept a Ju-88 reconnaissance aircraft over Dublin, but no contact was made. Irish Gladiators did shoot down several British barrage balloons that had broken loose from their moorings. The RAF used Gladiators for meteorological work and other non-combat tasks later in the war.

The Luftwaffe used captured Gladiators as glider tugs with Erganzungsgruppe 1 from Langendiebach near Hanau from 1942-43.

Aces

The top-scoring Gladiator aces flew in North Africa and Greece. Flight Lieutenant Marmaduke T “Pat” St. Pattle, a South African in RAF No. 80 Squadron, had 15.5 of his 50+ kills in Gladiators, plus four probable and six damaged. The second place man was Pilot Officer Bill “Cherry” W. Vale of No. 33 and No. 80 Squadrons shot down 7.5, one probable, and 1.5 damaged in Gladiators.

Variants

SS.37: Prototype aircraft.

Gladiator Mk I: First production version with a single 840hp Bristol Mercury IX air-cooled radial. Designated J8 in the Swedish Air Force. 378 built.

Gladiator Mk II: Production version powered by a single Bristol Mercury VIIA air-cooled radial. Designated J8A in the Swedish Air Force. 270 built.

Sea Gladiator Interim: Single-seat fighter biplane built for the Royal Navy, 38 produced. Fitted with arrestor hooks; serials N2265 through N2302.

Sea Gladiator: Single-seat fighter biplane built for the Royal Navy, 60 produced. Fitted with arrestor hooks and dinghy stowage; serials N550 through N5549, and N5565 through N5574.

Specifications

Gladiator Mk I

Length: 27ft 5in

Height: 11ft 9in

Wingspan: 32ft 3in

Wing Area: 323 sq ft

Empty Weight: 3,217lb

Loaded Weight: 4,594lb

Max Weight: 4,750lb

Powerplant: 1x 840hp Bristol Mercury IX 9-cylinder air-cooled radial engine

Max Speed: 253mph @ 14,500ft

Range: 420 miles

Ceiling: 32,800ft

Armament: First 71: 2x 7.7 Vickers machine-guns in fuselage sides; 2x 7.7mm Lewis drum-fed machine guns in lower wings

Then: 4x 7.7mm Browning machine-guns in fuselage sides and lower wings

Gladiator Mk II

Length: 27ft 5in

Height: 10ft 7in

Wingspan: 32ft 3in

Wing Area: 323 sq. ft.

Empty Weight: 3847lb

Loaded Weight: 4863lb

Powerplant: 1x 890hp Bristol mercury VIIA 9-cylinder air-cooled radial engine

Max Speed: 257mph @ 14,600ft

Range: 444mi

Ceiling: 33,501ft

Armament: 4x 7.7mm Browning machine-guns in fuselage sides and lower wings

Starboard Fuselage Gun

Port Wing Gun

Sources:

Hunters in the Sky

The Illustrated History of Fighters – Bill Gunston

www.wikipedia.org

www.century-of-flight.net

Introduction

The World War Blog

I have been a history buff for several years now, reading books, watching movies, interviewing veterans, and doing much research on World War II especially. Until now, I didn't have any way to really use my findings.
I will try to put up a post each week. I'll be studying key people, events, machines, tools, technology, and the like from wars around the world. I'm also looking forward to hearing input from others - comments on my writing, corrections on factual errors (we all make mistakes sometimes...), and some light discussion. I hope that this will be an interest to the reader, and that I can make a small tribute to those who served, fought, and died to keep this country free. And in all of this, I will give God the glory for his hand of providence that brought all this to be.